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Encyclopedia of Distance Learning (4 Volumes)
Editors:
Contributors:
Bruce Aaron, Accenture, USA

Mac Adkins, Troy State University Montgomery, USA

A.K. Aggarwal, University of Baltimore, USA

Gregg Ahser, St. Cloud State University, USA

Riad S. Aisami, Troy University, USA

Maryam Alavi, Emory University, USA

Eshaa M. Alkhalifa, University of Bahrain, Bahrain

Stephanie Allen, Brigham Young University, USA

Heidrun Allert, University of Hannover, Germany

Mohamed Ally, Athabasca University, Canada

Jae Soon An, Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, South Korea

Ellie Anderberg, North Idaho College, USA

Ronald E. Anderson, University of Minnesota, USA

Pombortsis Andreas, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

David Andrew, London Metropolitan University, United Kingdom

Bodil Ask, Agder University College, Norway

Petek Askar, Hacettepe University, Turkey

Karoulis Athanasis, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece

Eliza Au, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong

Bosede Aworuwa, Texas A&M Univeristy-Texarkana, USA

Linda L. Baer, Minnesota State Colleges and Universities, USA

Christine Bagwell, University of California, San Diego, USA

Jason D. Baker, Regent University, USA

Ashok Banerji, Jones International University, India

Leonard Barolli, Fukuoka Institute of Technology, Japan

Luis Barrera, Cesar Vallejo University, Peru

Dan Baugher, Pace University, USA

Steve Baxendale, Pacific Resources for Education and Learning, USA

Danilo M. Baylen, Florida Gulf Coast University, USA

Charles E. Beck, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, USA

Alice Bedard-Voorhees, Community Colleges of Colorado Online, USA

Sue Bennett, Uiversity of Wollongong, Australia

Gary A. Berg, California State University Channel Islands, USA

Zane Berge, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, USA

Jon Bernardes, The University of Wolverhampton, United Kingdom

Werner Beuschel, University of Applied Sciences, Germany

Barbara A. Bichelmeyer, Indiana University, USA

Cassie Bichy, UMBC, USA

Michael Bieber, New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA

Donald Bigelow, Washington, D.C., USA

Andrea R. Bilics, Worcester State College, USA

Lesley Blicker, Minnesota State Colleges and Universities and Metropolitan State University, USA

Marcie J. Bober, San Diego State University, USA

Adams Bodomo, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Judith V. Boettcher, University of Florida, USA

Curtis J. Bonk, Indiana University, USA

John R. Bourne, The Sloan Consortium, USA

Nicholas Bowskill, University of Sheffield, United Kingdom

Gary McI. Boyd, Concordia University, Canada

Mary F. Bratton-Jeffery, Naval Education and Training Command, USA

Adrienne A. R. Brooks, UAE University, United Arab Emirates

Tara Brown-L'Bahy, Harvard Graduate School of Education, USA

Elizabeth Buchanan, University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee, USA

Sheryl Burgstahler, University of Washington, USA

Sue Burke, Bloomington Public Schools, USA

Peter Burrage, Camosun College, Canada

Lisa Byrnes, Mount Aloysius College, USA

Kursat Cagiltay, Middle East Technical University, Turkey

Debra Campbell, SBI Technologies, USA

Peter Carr, Athabasca University, Canada

John M. Carroll, Pennsylvania State University, USA

Antonio Cartelli, University of Cassino, Italy

Volkan Çevik, Hacettepe University, Turkey

Teresa Chambel, University of Lisbon, Portugal

Christine Chan, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong

Han-Chieh Chao, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Diane Chapman, North Carolina State University, USA

Herng-Yow Chen, National Chi-Nan University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Ben M. Chen, National University of Singapore, Singapore

Irene Chen, University of Houston, USA

C. D. Cheng, Temasek Laboratories, Singapore

Marcus Childress, Emporia State University, USA

Hsianghoo Steve Ching, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Yun-Huoy Choo, National Technical University College of Malaysia, Malaysia

Kin Cheong CHU, Hong Kong Institute of Vocational Education, Hong Kong

Seung Youn (Yonnie) Chyung, Boise State University, USA

Geraldine Clarebout, University of Leuven, Belgium

Ellen Cohn, University of Pittsburgh, USA

Binta Colley, The City University of New York, USA

Betty Collis, University of Twente, The Netherlands

Linda W. Cooper, Macon State College, USA

Ana Maria R. Correia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Portugal

Tony Day, University of Phoenix, USA

Margaret Debenham, Consultant, United Kingdom

Chris Dede, Harvard Graduate School of Education, USA

John Dekkers, Central Queensland University, Australia

Laura A.B. Dell, Public Library of Cincinnati & Hamilton County, USA

Sara Dexter, University of Minnesota, USA

Ruby Roy Dholakia, The University of Rhode Island, USA

Nikhilesh Dholakia, The University of Rhode Island, USA

Efstratios T. Diamadis, Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece

Geoffrey N. Dick, University of New South Wales, Australia

Richard Discenza, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, USA

Oktay Dönmez, Hacettepe University, Turkey

Roisin Donnelly, Dublin Institute of Technology, Ireland

Kim E. Dooley, Texas A&M University, USA

Julián Dorado, University of A Coruña, Spain

Anita Dorniden, Holdingford High School, USA

Robert Downs, Technology Integration Specialist, USA

Susanne Draheim, University of Applied Sciences, Germany

Augusta Droste, Virtual Online Training & Teaching (VOLTT), USA

Bruce Droste, Virtual Online Training & Teaching (VOLTT), USA

Rosemary Du Mont, Kent State University, USA

Carol C. Dudding, University of Virginia, USA

Donna Dufner, University of Nebraska, Omaha, USA

Ann Hill Duin, University of Minnesota, USA

Elza Dunkels, University of Umeå, Sweden

Alice E. Dupler, Washington State University, USA

Jane Eberle, Emporia State University, USA

Alev M. Efendioglu, University of San Francisco, USA

Jan Elen, University of Leuven, Belgium

Zippy Erlich, The Open University of Israel, Israel

Yoram Eshet, The Open University, Israel

Stephanie Etter, Mount Aloysius College, USA

Michael A. Evans, Indiana University, USA

Jody Condit Fagan, James Madison University, USA

Laura G. Farres, Douglas College, Canada

Saul Fisher, The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, USA

Chris Ford, University of Bristol, United Kingdom

Jonathan Frank, Suffolk University, USA

Barbara A. Frey, University of Pittsburgh, USA

Birgit Gaiser, Knowledge Media Research Center, Germany

Judith Gal-Ezer, Open University of Israel, Israel

Boris Galitsky, Birkbeck College University of London, England

Jeanine E. Gangeness, Bemidji State University, USA

Edward D. Garten, University of Dayton, USA

R. Gerber, University of New England, Australia

David B. Glick, Glick Consulting, USA

Stuart S. Gold, DeVry University, USA

John Gordon, John Gordon Organisation Ltd., United Kingdom

Charles R. Graham, Brigham Young University, USA

Candice Grayson, Greater Baltimore Medical Center, USA

Shirley Gregor, Australian National University, Australia

Nuno Guimarães, University of Lisbon, Portugal

Kerem Gültekin, Hacettepe University, Turkey

Sarah Guri-Rosenblit, The Open University of Israel, Israel

Svenja Hagenhoff, Georg-August-University Goettingen, Germany

Mohamed Salah Hamdi, UAE University, United Arab Emirates

Donald A. Hantula, Temple University, USA

Dennis Harper, Generation YES, USA

Michael Hartoonian, University of Minnesota, USA

Leslie G. Hathorn, Kent State University, USA

Harald Haugen, Stord/Haugesund University College, Norway

M. Haughey, University of Alberta, Canada

Gary Hawkins, Spring Arbor University, USA

Ed Hessler, Minnesota Environmental Sciences Foundation, Inc., USA

Starr Roxanne Hiltz, New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA

Leo Tan Wee Hin, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Cherie Hohertz, University of Dallas, USA

Chris Houser, Gendai Bunka Gakubu, Japan

Caroline Howard, HC Consulting and Touro International University, USA

Scott L. Howell, Brigham Young University, USA

M. Gordon Hunter, The University of Lethbridge, Canada

Barbara Iannarelli, Niagara University, USA

Albert L. Ingram, Kent State University, USA

Gretchen Irvine, Augsburg College, USA

Philip L. Isenhour, Virginia Tech, USA

Diane P. Janes, University of Saskatchewan, Canada

Arthur B. Jeffery, University of South Alabama, USA

Julian Jenkins, University of Bristol, United Kingdom

Renee Jesness, Online Learning Coordinator for Minneapolis Public Schools, USA

Jing Jian Jian Xiao, The University of Rhode Island, USA

Anthony Johnson, UMBC, USA

Vivian Johnson, Hamline University, USA

Douglas B. Johnstone, Western Governors University, USA

Sally M. Johnstone, Western Cooperative for Educational Telecommunications, USA

Diane L. Judd, Valdosta State University, USA

Sherif Kamel, The American University in Cairo, Egypt

Michelle T. C. Kao, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Karl M. Kapp, Bloomsburg University, USA

Roger Kaufman, Florida State University, USA

Barbara J. Keinath, Metropolitan State University, USA

Kathleen D. Kelsey, Oklahoma State University, USA

Mike Keppell, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong

Diane Jass Ketelhut, Harvard Graduate School of Education, USA

Sim Khoon-Seng, Curtin University of Technology, Malaysia

Kinshuk, Massey University, New Zealand

Craig Kissock, University of Minnesota, USA

Gonca Kizilkaya, Hacettepe University, Turkey

Esther E. Klein, Hofstra University, USA

Jane E. Klobas, University of Western Australia, Australia

Carole Knicker, Augsburg College, USA

Rachael Knight, Royal Women's Hospital, Australia

Michaela Knust, Georg-August-University Goettingen, Germany

C. C. Ko, National University of Singapore, Singapore

Yasemin Kocak-Usluel, Hacettepe University, Turkey

Henk Koppelaar, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands

Larry Korba, National Research Council Canada, Canada

George K. Kostopoulos, The American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates

Akio Koyama, Yamagata University, Japan

Rick Krueger, JLT Group, USA

Agnes Kukulska-Hulme, The Open University, United Kingdom

Tiong Kung-Ming, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia

Sri Kurniawan, UMIST, United Kingdom

Ray Kurzweil, Kurzweil Companies, USA

Andrew Laghos, City University, United Kingdom

Andrew Laghos, City University, England

Johanna Lammintakanen, University of Kuopio, Finland

Gaye Lang, U.S. Department of Education, USA

Gary R. Langer, Minnesota State Colleges and Universities, USA

Thomas Lapping, JDL Technologies, USA

Vincent E. Lasnik, Distance Learning Instructional Design Consultant, USA

Habibah Lateh, University Science Malaysia, Malaysia

R. Dwight Laws, Brigham Young University, USA

Belinda Davis Lazarus, University of Michigan-Dearborn, USA

Pamela LeConte, The INFUSIO Lab, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA

Ji-Yeon Lee, The University of South Carolina, USA

Chen-Yuan "Corey" Lee, The University of Findlay, USA

Sheng-Wei Lee, National Chi-Nan University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

John R. Lee, University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom

Carol M. Lerch, Daniel Webster College, USA

James Lerman, Teachers College, Columbia University, USA

Elvis Wai Chung LEUNG, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Yair Levy, Nova Southeastern University, USA

Qing LI, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Dale W. Lick, Florida State University, USA

Taiyu Lin, Massey University, New Zealand

Hao-Tung Lin, National Chi-Nan University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Zhangxi Lin, Texas Tech University, USA

James R. Lindner, Texas A&M University, USA

Nathan K. Lindsay, University of Michigan, USA

Hsien-Chin Liou, National Tsing Hua University, China

Kuo-Yu Liu, National Chi-Nan University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Xiaoqiang Liu, Donghua University, PR China

Joost Lowyck, University of Leuven, Belgium

Naomi Lungstrom, Washington State University,

Stephen Macadoff, Community College of Baltimore County, USA

Colla J. MacDonald, University of Ottawa, Canada

Bonnie L. MacGregor, Bryant & Stratton College, USA

Henryk Marcinkiewicz, Pennsylvania College of Technology, USA

Stephen Marshall, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand

Stewart Marshall, The University of the West Indies, West Indies

Wm. Benjamin Martz, Jr., University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, USA

A. Frank Mayadas, The Sloan Consortium, USA

J.M. McInnerney, Central Queensland University, Australia

Jennifer McLean, Pennsylvania College of Technology, USA

Carmel McNaught, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Mathew Mitchell, University of San Francisco, USA

Al P. Mizell, Nova Southeastern University, USA

Deana L. Molinari, Washington State University, USA

Ashli Molinero, University of Pittsburgh, USA

Jef Moonen, University of Twente, The Netherlands

Janet C. Moore, The Sloan Consortium, USA

Valerie N. Morphew, Fairmont State University, USA

Brian Mulligan, Institute of Technology Sligo, Ireland

Norbert Mundorf, The University of Rhode Island, USA

Tim H. Murphy, Texas Tech University, USA

L. W. Murray, University of San Francisco, USA

Som Naidu, The University of Melbourne, Australia

John Nash, Stanford University, USA

Rod Nason, Queensland University of Technology, Australia

Dennis C. Neale, Virginia Tech, USA

Kathryn Nee, UMBC, USA

Amy J. Nelson, Minnesota State College-Southeast Technical, USA

Pete Nelson, Portanza, USA

Brian Newberry, California State University, USA

Christopher Newell, University of Tasmania, Australia

Latika Nirula, OISE/University of Toronto, Canada

Wanda B. Nitsch, University of St. Augustine for Health Sciences, USA

Donald M. Norris, Strategic Initiatives, Inc., USA

Mark Notess, Indiana University, USA

James E. Novitzki, Johns Hopkins University, USA

John O'Donoghue, University of Wolverhampton, United Kingdom

Lynette Olson, Minnesota State Colleges and Universities, USA

Bonnie McCall Ordonez, Waynesburg College, USA

Robert Owen, Texas A&M Univeristy-Texarkana, USA

M Michelle Panton, Metavante Corporation, USA

Jo B. Paoletti, University of Maryland, USA

Parviz Partow-Navid, California State University, Los Angeles, USA

David Paulson, School Safety Research Institute, USA

Trena M. Paulus, University Of Tennessee, USA

Alejandro Pazos, University of A Coruña, Spain

Nieves Pedreira, University of A Coruña, Spain

Leslee Francis Pelton, University of Victoria, Canada

Timothy W. Pelton, University of Victoria, Canada

Deborah Petska, Northrop Grumman Information Technology, USA

Valentina Plekhanova, University of Sunderland, United Kingdom

George C. Polyzos, Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece

Paul W.T. Poon, Education and Manpower Bureau, Hong Kong

Johanna Pöysä, Center for Instructional Psychology and Technology, Belgium

Alan Pritchard, University of Warwick, United Kingdom

Deborah W. Proctor, Minnesota State Colleges and Universities, USA

Juan Rabuñal, University of A Coruña, Spain

Roy Rada, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, USA

Michelle M. Rahim, Nova Southeastern University, USA

Hakikur Rahman, Open University, Banglaesh

Mahesh S. Raisinghani, University of Dallas, USA

Arumugam Raman, University of Science, Malaysia

Carl A. Raschke, University of Denver, USA

Venkateshwar K. Reddy, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, USA

Christiane Reilly, Bemidji State University, USA

Stefano Renzi, Bocconi University, Italy

Christoph Richter, University of Hannover, Germany

William H. Riffee, University of Florida, USA

Sari Rissanen, University of Kuopio, Finland

T.S. Roberts, Central Queensland University, Australia

Evan T. Robinson, University of Charleston School of Pharmacy, USA

P. Clint Rogers, Brigham Young University, USA

Patricia L. Rogers, Bemidji State University, USA

Malu Roldan, San Jose State University, USA

Mary Beth Rosson, Pennsylvania State University, USA

Joze Rugelj, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia

Glenn Russell, Monash University, Australia

Richard C. Ryan, University of Oklahoma, USA

Wendi Ryder, Brigham Young University, USA

Nicoletta Sala, Università della Svizzera italiana, Switzerland

Gregory C. Sales, Seward Incorporated, USA

Gilly Salmon, University of Leicester, United Kingdom

Graeme Salter, University of Western Sydney, Australia

Nurul I. Sarkar, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand

Anabela Sarmento, Instituto Politécnico do Porto, Portugal

Gary Saunders, Marshall University, USA

Glenda Rose Scales, Virginia Tech, USA

Karen D. Schenk, K.D. Schenk and Associates Consulting, USA

Catherine C. Schifter, Temple University, USA

Robert J. Schihl, Regent University, USA

Sonja Schmieder, Augsberg College, USA

Allen Schmieder, JDL Technologies, USA

Janet Schoenfeld, Poole & Associates, Inc., USA

Gary Schornack, University of Colorado at Denver, USA

Lynne Schrum, University of Utah, USA

Christopher Sessums, University of Florida, USA

Neal Shambaugh, West Virginia University, USA

Ali Fawaz Shareef, Massey University, New Zealand

R C Sharma, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India

Michael Shaughnessy, Washington & Jefferson College, USA

Patricia A. Shaw, University of Wisconsin - Stevens Point, USA

Graham Shaw, Barry University, USA

Rachael Sheldrick, Accenture, USA

Jia Shen, New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA

Morgan M. Shepherd, University of Colorado at Colorado Springs, USA

Vivien Sieber, University of Oxford, United Kingdom

Susan Slick, University of Wisconsin - Stevens Point, USA

Ludwig Slusky, California State University, Los Angeles, USA

Frances G. Smith, The INFUSIO Lab, Virginia Commonwealth University, USA

Pamela Solvie, University of Minnesota, USA

Kirk St.Amant, Texas Tech University, USA

Tina Stavredes, Capella University, USA

Emma J. Stodel, University of Ottawa, Canada

Howard Strauss, Princeton University, USA

R. Subramaniam, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Cecil Sugarman, Nova Southeastern University, USA

Karen Swan, Kent State University, USA

Christine Sweeney, NCS Pearson, USA

Jamie S. Switzer, Colorado State University, USA

Wal Taylor, Capetown University of Technology, South Africa

Tedi Thompson, American Public University System, USA

Patricia Thornton, Bungakubu, Japan

K.A. Toh, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Janet Toland, Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand

Teresa Torres-Coronas, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Spain

Ann-Marie Trammell, University of Phoenix, USA

Murray Turoff, New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA

Carol A. Twigg, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, USA

Lorna Uden, Staffordshire University, United Kingdom

Jef Van den Ende, Institute for Tropical Medicine, Belgium

Erwing van den Enden, Institute for Tropical Medicine, Belgium

Andrew Varanelli, Pace University, USA

Kam Hou VAT, University of Macau, Macau

Tad Waddington, Accenture, USA

Shiang-Kwei Wang, New York Institute of Technology, USA

Paul Wasko, Minnesota State Colleges and Universities, USA

Ryan Watkins, The George Washington University, USA

Ellen Weisbord, Pace University, USA

Pamela Whitehouse, Harvard Graduate School of Education, USA

Camille Whitfield, University of Phoenix Online, USA

Kate Whittington, University of Bristol, United Kingdom

Katherine C. Wieseman, Western State College of Colorado, USA

Wendi Wilcken, Brigham Young University, USA

Rosemary H. Wild, California Polytechnic State University, USA

John Wilkinson, JDL Technologies, USA

Peter B. Williams, Brigham Young University, USA

Jocelyn M. Wishart, University of Bristol, United Kingdom

Robert A. Wisher, US Department of Defense, USA

E. Lea Witta, University of Central Florida, USA

Raymond Wong, University of Macau, Macau

Y.Y. Jessie Wong, Independent Educational Researcher, Canada

Earl Woodruff, OISE/University of Toronto, Canada

Robert H. Woods, Spring Arbor University, USA

David Wright, University of Ottawa, Canada

Man-Hua Wu, National Chi-Nan University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Dezhi Wu, New Jersey Institute of Technology, USA

Tin-Yu Wu, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan, R.O.C.

Yuefei Xu, National Research Council Canada, Canada

Chia-chi Yang, University of Missouri-Columbia, USA

George Yee, National Research Council Canada, Canada

Su-Ting Yong, Curtin University of Technology, Sarawak Campus, Malaysia

Holly Yu, California State University, USA

Giorgos Zacharia, Open Ratings Headquarters, USA

Panagiotis Zaharias, Athens University of Economics and Business, Greece

Panayiotis Zaphiris, City University, United Kingdom

Y. J. Zhang, Tsinghua University, China

Yu-Jin Zhang, Tsinghua University, Beijing, PR China

Dai Zhang, Concordia University, Canada

Erping Zhu, University of Michigan, USA